Introduction To Undergraduate Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Introduction To Undergraduate Study - Essay Example In finding an understanding of this work, the way in which society now views the female form and how it is commercialized for the purposes of selling fashion can be realized. According to Bate (2003: 22), surrealism is â€Å"semiotically speaking, a signifying effect, the confusion or a contradiction in a conventional signifier - signified relations in representations and where a meaning is partially hidden, where the message appears enigmatic regardless of how it was produced†. The art of surrealistic photography is found where the imagery reveals something more than what is visually available, where the form provides a clue to the intent, rather than a specific and defined point of reference. The singular importance, simplified in order to provide a point of further discussion, within the photographic art that Man Ray created is in manipulation. Through creating the concept of manipulation in order to create surrealistic work, Man Ray began discoveries that would revolutionize many aspects of the medium of photography. One of the significant ways in which Man Ray created innovation was in the process of development so that different effects could be achieved. According to Miller (1996: 75), every error was an opportunity for greater innovation. The process of solarization was developed through a laboratory accident. The great numbers of innovations that he created were then very generously shared within the photography world, thus furthering the advancement of the medium. Man Ray had no respect for his equipment and did not hold to the idea that expensive equipment changed his process for the better. He believed in using what he had to make the commentary that he desires, thus promoting creativity in his process. However, it is the manipulation of the form that had the greatest impact on fashion photography. Man Ray developed a way of elongating the female form, creating a more idealized look. Through techniques that manipulated the image, he created

Symbolism in the Short Story Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Symbolism in the Short Story - Assignment Example It does catch fire from the sun making it burn up and from its ash, it is reborn. In the short story, the mission of Phoenix is to obtain the Medicine for the sake of the grandson. She is strong and persistent as she walks. She is a symbolic of phoenix (Chengges, 2009). The description in the story about Phoenix Jackson is indicative of phoenix. She is described as having golden color under her skin, and her hair is tied in a red flag and eyes are blue due to age. It symbolizes her age and compares it with the bird, which matures to old age. In the whole novel, there is close reference to time and age. Another symbolism emerging is the appearance of birds. She is being likened to a bird, together with her grandson. In the initial introduction of the story, she is carrying a small stick, hitting ground with it and making some noise like a chirping bird. She is also overprotective of her son like the one a bird watches over her young ones. The incidences occurring in the hospital after her arrival is symbolic of phoenix. She becomes numb, losing the ability to talk. The care team is perplexed and asks if the grandson is dead. The words bring her back to her sense and her face glitters, just as phoenix does. She starts to walk down the stairs, indicating a new life (Ma, 2010). Essentially, the whole plot is all symbolic of the legend bird phoenix. Her behavior, description appearance, and all she does rotate around the symbolic bird. She is so caring to her grandson and can travel to any distance for his sake. Her journey portrays her as a selfless person. Her aim is just to help. She undergoes so many difficulties in aiding her grandson, just like the phoenix bird (Welty& Sarcone,

Restorative Justice | An analysis

Restorative Justice | An analysis Introduction Restorative Justice is often known as the term used to describe meetings in which people affected by crime talk about their experience, the damage and harm caused, in addition to discussing how the situation can be repaired, on a direct and personal level. Government research shows that Restorative Justice is coveted by around half of victims, helping victims who choose to take part, but reducing their desire for revenge and by relieving any undue stress that has come to fruition as a result of the victims experience. It has been argued that custodial sentences do not rehabilitate offenders, particularly those offenders who had committed minor/petty crimes. Many offenders, once released, would have strengthened their overall knowledge of crimes, gaining information from fellow inmates. Therefore, custodial punishments could be seen as considerably more harmful for the offender compared to community sentences. Prisons always do harm. Thats the most important thing that people have to get into their heads: that prison always does harm (McLellan, 2006:10) Restorative Justice allows victims the opportunity to inform their offenders of the true impact that the crime they committed had on the victims life, helping them to get answers to their questions and to receive an apology for the overall experience that they encountered. It gives the offenders the chance to repent and understand the significant impact of what they have done and to do something to repair the damage and harm caused. A great positive concerning restorative justice is that it has the potential to unite offenders, victims and local communities together to resolve any problems, and to settle on a response to a particular crime. Its crucial for the process of restorative justice to put victims needs at the centre of the criminal justice system and, drawing on positive solutions to crime by support them in order for the offender to face up to their actions. Within the criminal justice system, restorati ve justice conferences allow offenders, victims and their respective family members and friends to come together to explore how those involved in the incident had been affected and, when possible, to decide how to repair the harm and meet their own needs. A victim can request a restorative justice approach to help an offender comprehend and understand how the crime has affected their life, and/or other peoples lives in the process, to gain information, helping put the crime behind them and aiming to come to terms/forget their experience and personal ordeal, and to openly forgive the offender for their actions. Restorative Justice also aids offenders, with trials within the United Kingdom highlighting that the process of Restorative Justice significantly reduces the number of crimes offenders commit, with an average of 27% fewer crimes committed by offenders who had taken part in a restorative justice conference. Restorative Justice is also beneficial in terms of finance, as it has b een underlined that restorative justice saves the criminal justice system up to  £8 for every  £1 spent delivering the Restorative Justice Service. Restorative Justice assists offenders to account for what they have done, directly and personally, in addition to helping the victims to proceed with their lives. Restorative Justices is not only used successfully within the Criminal Justice System, but also in local communities, school, at work, and within other institutions across the country. (Restorative Justice Consortium (RJC)) Various techniques are used to bring the offender and victim together, to discuss the impact the crime has had, on both of their lives, futherly helping both parties to leave the incident behind them and continue with their lives. Direct mediation involves the victim, offender, facilitator and potentially other supporters for each party who come together to meet face to face, discussing the experience and incident as a whole. Similar to direct mediation is involving the wider community whereas indirect mediation concerns the victim and offender who communicate through letters which are passed between them by a facilitator. Conferencing is another technique used, which involves supporters from both parties. Restorative justice is carried out in many different forms and structures; however, each and every variety within restorative justice contains common/similar traits. When concerned with criminal cases, each and every victim is given the opportunity to express the full impact of the crime upon their lives. Offenders can also contribute by expressing their feelings and views concerning the crime, explain on a personal level why the crime was committed and similarly to the victim, explain how the incident has had on their life. In social justice cases, those less fortunate and impoverished people such as foster children are given a similar opportunity to express their opinions and points of view for their futures, and being encourag ed to plan their futures, thus avoiding involvement in committing crimes. However, only a small minority of young adolescents have access to Restorative Justice. The Restorative Justice Consortium (RJC) consider their consortium to be the national voice of restorative justice with their vision being for every person harmed by conflict to have the opportunity to resolve it through a restorative processproviding independent information about Restorative Justice to the public; support and resource our members who deliver Restorative Justice and promote the development and use of Restorative Justice. (Restorative Justice Consortium (RJC)) Restorative Justice Unit Victim-Offender Family Group Conferences is one method/process used within restorative justice, where conferences are organised by the Restorative Justice Unit (RJU) in reaction to referrals from victims, offenders, as well as anybody else considered to be involved in the situation. The programme occurs once the offenders sentence has been concluded, allowing victims to put across their point of view even once offender has been sentenced to jail or to a community alternative. Agreement on participation within the video conference must take place between the offender and the victim. Whilst participating in the conferences, the offender and victim(s) can meet together with their respective parties. Each and every participant has the chance to discuss the crime and the impact that this has had on their lives. Once this has occurred they then come to an agreement about what needs to be done to help to repair some of the damage and minimise future harm. The agreement is called a Conferenc e Agreement. This arrangement may include an apology, community service work, repair of damage to property, personal repayment as well as an undertaking by the offender to seek counselling, support or treatment. (Restorative Justice Consortium (RJC)) Restorative justice contains many benefits and positives. For example, whereas traditional justice can be seen to be about punishing offenders for committing crimes against the British Government/Nation, restorative justice solely concerns offenders and their victims, aiming to make making amends directly, with the people and victims involved. Restorative justice assists victims to speak and discuss their criminal experience as a victim within the criminal justice system, in addition to acknowledging the explanations of both parties concerned, building confidence and a rapport that ultimately leads to the offender making amends for their actions, and the damaging effect their actions caused upon an innocent member of society. Studies on restorative justice indicate the that restorative justice approaches help to reduce post-traumatic stress disorder in victims , and in many, deter offender from crime, as well as motivating offenders to avoid further criminal behaviour. Some may believe restorative justice to be an easy and simple process to go through, however it should not be considered a soft option as many offenders find it extremely difficult to face up to the impact of their crimes, committed by themselves. There are many types of restorative justice approaches including, offenders removing graffiti, repairing property that has been damaged, bringing shoplifters face to face with store managers to hear how shop theft affects others, and also getting offenders to write letters of apology to those who have been affected as a result of their own criminal behaviour. McCold and Wachtel bring to light that restorative practices have a clear and defined history within the concepts of restorative justice. The Interna tional Institute for Restorative Practices (IIRP) continues to develop comprehensive framework to be put into practice, with theory that aims to expand concept and hypothesis of restorative justice further afar than its original ideas in criminal justice. Restorative practices continue to emerge in term of practice and study, which are devoted to structuring and realising social discipline, through social participation in restorative justice Involved Steps Steps have been taken to considerably promote restorative justice within the criminal just system. Restorative justice is essentially committed to putting victims at the forefront of the criminal justice system, in order to have their say and reflect upon the experience they encountered, assisting the criminal justice system in the reduction of crime within the United Kingdom. Recent restorative justice strategies include introducing more restorative justice processes into the criminal justice system such as weve introduced restorative police cautioning , as well as aspiring to offer 75% of all victims of youth crime participation in restorative processes. Restorative justice also looks to develop an evidence headquarters for the use of restorative justice through funding a number of pilots on topics like the relationship between restorative justice and prevention of re-offending, in addition to developing and introducing constructive, practical and valuable guidelines for people wor king in restorative justice. Mc Cold continues to inform us of how restorative justice has been applied to property offences, as well as civil and criminal offences. However, it has been deemed as unsuitable for drug offences, sexual assault and domestic violence. However, areas of Australia and New Zealand are amongst the nations who have chosen to deal with juvenile sexual offences using restorative justice. Indigenous and native areas of Canada have implemented different approaches, such as circle sentencing, to tentatively deal with domestic violence. Supporters believe that this may be suitable to these indigenous communities due to their different levels concerning their personal regard and effectiveness they have for a punitive court system compared to non-indigenous communities and groups. However, it is acknowledged that restorative justice has no agreed, fixed or set rules and regulations, and therefore it must be emphasised to avoid conflict within communities. Reparation s is a fair and practical way for the offender to repay the harm caused as a result of their offence, either by personally repairing the damage caused or through assisting within the local community. Types of reparation include, as mentioned earlier, a written apology, an oral apology, or financial reparation to the victim. Community reparations involve the offender working within a local community, as a source of punishment and repayment due the detrimental effect their crime had on the community as a whole. In 2001, the Home Office conducted their fourth report concerning their Crime Reduction Programme. Earlier reports highlighted how schemes were implemented, the expectation of the participants who were due to be involved in the scheme in addition to feedback given from those who we previously involved in the scheme, highlight the benefits and rewards that they experienced as a result of restorative justice.. This fourth report focuses on one of the key original aims of the Home Office funding, whether restorative justice reduces re-offending and/or provides value for money. In 2007, Lawrence W Sherman, Professor of Criminology at the University of Cambridge, was assisted in publishing a review of each and every research project, from 1986 to 2005, concerning restorative justice conferencing. The results that came from the publication were considerably constructive, encouraging and optimistic. It found that victims who were assigned to and complete the restorative justice process reported greater ability to return to work, to resume normal daily activities, to sleep better at night. What is also very encouraging is that during the 19 year period of the reports, there were no documented cases or either physical or verbal violence between the two parties involved in the restorative justice process. The reports also emphasised that much of the reluctance is due to the unfamiliarity of the general public towards restorative, with the majority, having little or no knowledge of the procedures involved, due to misconceptions about what it entails, through communication and interaction with others. Restorative justice is considerably more accessible now than it ever has been throughout its history as well as the history of the criminal justice system, together with information about the upbeat views of the victims who have chosen to participate; this is likely to result in increased participation amongst victims, who previously were unwilling to participate. Due to such consistent positive feedback about victim benefits, within the vast majority of cases, helps us conclude that victims will generally benefit from participation whenever they have the opportunity to do so, and should seek to volunteer for restorative justice, as the report shows they have nothing to fear, but a great amount to gain through participation. The reports published also showed differences in the victims feeling prior to and after the meeting with the offender had ta ken place. Feelings differed greatly when considering personal fear of the offender, especially amongst more violent victims; personal self-confidence; level of personal anxiety; sympathy for the offender and the offenders supporters, wishing for their sake also that the crime had never been committed; as well as feelings of trust in others, that had previously been depleted as a result of the criminal ordeal as a victim Family group decision-making Family group decision-making (FGDM) also known as or referred to as family group conferencing (FGC) deals with allowing extended families to meet privately, with no counsellors/staff in the room, to formulate a plan to protect their children families from further neglect and violence. In education, circles and groups provide opportunities for students to share their feelings, build relationships and problem-solve, and when there is wrongdoing, to play an active role in addressing the wrong and making things right Thus, I see restorative justice as a forward-thinking and moving, anticipatory response that strives to understand crime in its modern day social context, challenging us to examine the causes of foundations that lead to criminal actions of violence. The restorative justice approach is based on the supposition that crime has its origins in social conditions, and recognises that offenders themselves have often suffered harm, turning to crime as a result of their personal exper iences. As a result, communities must both take some responsibility for controlling the social condition that significantly contributes to crime, simultaneously working to promote healing. With healing not only crucial to victims, but also to the offender. Equally the rehabilitation of offenders, as well as their re-integration into the community are critical aspects of restorative justice. Offenders are treated respectfully and their needs are addressed. Removing them from the community, or imposing any other severe restrictions, is a last resort. It is thought that the best way to prevent re-offending is re-integration. As a result, restorative justice can be seen to be a positive structure that continues to grow and gain publicity. It is the choice of the victim and the offender to volunteer to be included in the restorative justice programme, and therefore it can be said that a negative aspect concerning restorative justice lies with the victim and the offender, as restorative j ustice is not an issue forced upon a person, but a choice that can have a significant overall effect on not only the lives of the two parties involved, but also on the community as a whole. Another criticism of restorative justice that has been raised is that there is no detailed and precise theory supporting the procedures of restorative justice. For example, some see restorative justice as being vulnerable to biases and prejudice, particularly concerning class and race which could distort the fundamental purposes of restorative justice, instead reinforcing western, white middle-class values. (Delgado, 2000:768) Due to the lack of precise theory surround restorative justice, it is open and vulnerable to criticism. Ashworth and von Hirsch highlight the possible lack of equality and proportionality involved in restorative justice procedures, concerned with the extreme demands of irate victims, however Dalys claims are not supported by evidence or theory, and as a result his hypothese s is not always taken into consideration. Restorative justice is also vulnerable to criticism from opposing politicians and members of the general public, as a result of many believing in the old-fashioned phrase you do the crime, you do the time. Many see restorative justice as a simple option for offenders, causing numerous groups and people to ask the question Why commit the crime in the first place? Numerous members of the general public and several scholars believe that victims should not be pressured into reconciling with the offenders, ultimately ensuring that the general public and offenders separate in order to assure public safety. However I disagree with this view as restorative justice is a voluntary option, not being forced on the victim, it is their own personal choice, and in order for offenders to be fully rehabilitated, they have to accepted and re-integrate with society once their sentence has passed. Re-integration is made considerably simpler if the offender is given the chance and opportunity to come face-to-face with the victim, assisting the offender to realise the impact that their immoral actions have had, not only on the victim, but on close friends and relations. Overall I believe restorative justice to have a positive impact within the criminal justice system, targeting rehabilitation and reform, whilst hoping the offenders do not re-offend. Restorative justice can be seen to be a pro-active method of reducing crime, for the offender, as well as having a positive effect on the victim, helping them overcome any fears they may have had prior to meeting with the offender. Methods and processes of restorative justice continue to go from strength to strength, reforming and rehabilitating more offenders each year, which can simply be described as a move in the right direction for our criminal justice system.

Productivity in The US :: essays research papers fc

Productivity in the U.S. and What the Government Must Do   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John sits at home each night with his wife and two children and watches the news. He listens as experts on the economy tell him that the economy is growing and that the GDP is growing. He wonders how this can be, because he lost his job months ago and has not been able to find work since. Has the very country that John lives in moved on and left him behind? This is the question that many Americans are asking themselves, and many more will be soon. In the 1960s and early 90s productivity in America increased by record amounts. The nation was prospering, people had jobs, and they were spending their money. All of this was done by simple government intervention. Now America is looking at another rise in productivity, but this time it may be a little bit different unless the government takes the proper steps.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The 1960s was a period of prosperity for the America. This was largely due to policies and the tax cuts that President Kennedy initiated at the beginning of the decade. His tax cuts were successful in lowering unemployment, encouraging people to invest more, and making the overall economy improve. To begin a period of prosperity there must be something to start it off. A tax cut gives people an incentive to work, save, and invest. President Kennedy said, â€Å"A rising tide lifts all boats† (Garfield, 1). This is proof that the government can have a big role in the economy. The Kennedy administration cut business taxes as well as investment taxes. This caused the Gross Domestic Product to grow by 4.5 percent in the 60s as compared to only 2.4 percent from 1952 to 1960 (Garfield, 3). Many people were worried that these tax cuts would raise the deficit, which makes since because lower taxes means the government will receive less money. However this was not tr ue. The tax cuts increased spending and investment to much that the government’s revenues increased 6.4 percent as compared to 1.2 percent from 1952 to 1959 (Garfield, 3). This proved that cutting the taxes can stimulate the economy enough to raise the government’s budget. This intervention by the government raised the standard of living for American citizens as well as increasing government revenue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  President Bush has cut the taxes himself. However these tax cuts are far different from those of the 1960’s. Productivity in The US :: essays research papers fc Productivity in the U.S. and What the Government Must Do   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John sits at home each night with his wife and two children and watches the news. He listens as experts on the economy tell him that the economy is growing and that the GDP is growing. He wonders how this can be, because he lost his job months ago and has not been able to find work since. Has the very country that John lives in moved on and left him behind? This is the question that many Americans are asking themselves, and many more will be soon. In the 1960s and early 90s productivity in America increased by record amounts. The nation was prospering, people had jobs, and they were spending their money. All of this was done by simple government intervention. Now America is looking at another rise in productivity, but this time it may be a little bit different unless the government takes the proper steps.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The 1960s was a period of prosperity for the America. This was largely due to policies and the tax cuts that President Kennedy initiated at the beginning of the decade. His tax cuts were successful in lowering unemployment, encouraging people to invest more, and making the overall economy improve. To begin a period of prosperity there must be something to start it off. A tax cut gives people an incentive to work, save, and invest. President Kennedy said, â€Å"A rising tide lifts all boats† (Garfield, 1). This is proof that the government can have a big role in the economy. The Kennedy administration cut business taxes as well as investment taxes. This caused the Gross Domestic Product to grow by 4.5 percent in the 60s as compared to only 2.4 percent from 1952 to 1960 (Garfield, 3). Many people were worried that these tax cuts would raise the deficit, which makes since because lower taxes means the government will receive less money. However this was not tr ue. The tax cuts increased spending and investment to much that the government’s revenues increased 6.4 percent as compared to 1.2 percent from 1952 to 1959 (Garfield, 3). This proved that cutting the taxes can stimulate the economy enough to raise the government’s budget. This intervention by the government raised the standard of living for American citizens as well as increasing government revenue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  President Bush has cut the taxes himself. However these tax cuts are far different from those of the 1960’s.

Computers in entertainment industry Essay

What is o.s? An operating System (OS) is an intermediary between users and computer hardware. It provides users an environment in which a user can execute programs conveniently and efficiently. In technical terms, it is software which manages hardware. An operating System controls the allocation of resources and services such as memory, processors, devices and information . Definition An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. History- Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could automatically run different programs in succession to speed up processing. Operating systems did not exist in their modern and more complex forms until the early 1960s.[5] Hardware features were added, that enabled use of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel processing. When personal computers became popular in the 1980s, operating systems were made for them similar in concept to those used on larger computers. Functions of O.S- Operating system is a large and complex software consisting of several components. Each component of the operating system has its own set of defined inputs and outputs. Different components of OS perform specific tasks to provide the overall functionality of the operating system .Main functions of the operating system are as follows: Process Management— The process management activities handled by the OS are—(1) control access to shared resources like file, memory, I/O and CPU, (2) control execution of applications, (3) create, execute and delete a process (system process or user process), (4) cancel or resume a process (5) schedule a process, and (6) synchronization, communication and deadlock handling for processes. Figure :. Functions of OS Memory Management— The activities of memory management handled by OS are—(1) allocate memory, (2) free memory, (3) re-allocate memory to a program when a used block is freed, and (4) keep track of memory usage. File Management— The file management tasks include—(1) create and delete both files and directories, (2) provide access to files, (3) allocate space for files, (4) keep back-up of files, and (5) secure files. Device Management— The device management tasks handled by OS are—(1) open, close and write device drivers, and (2) communicate, control and monitor the device driver. Protection and Security— OS protects the resources of system. User authentication, file attributes like read, write, encryption, and back-up of data are used by OS to provide basic protection. User Interface or Command Interpreter— Operating system provides an interface between the computer user and the computer hardware. The user interface is a set of commands or a graphical user interface via which the user interacts with the applications and the hardware. Objective of O.s- Operating system is system software that controls and coordinates the use of hardware among the different application software and users. OS intermediates between the user of computer and the computer hardware. The user gives a command and the OS translates the command into a form that the machine can understand and execute. OS has two main objectives— (1) to make the computer system convenient and easy to use, for the user. (2) to use the computer hardware in an efficient way, by handling the details of the operations of the hardware. Types of O.S – OS are classified into different types depending on their capability of processing—(1) Single user, (2) Multiuser, (3) Multitasking, (4) Multiprocessing, (5) Real time, and (6) Embedded. Single User and Single Task OS is for use by a single user for a standalone single computer for performing a single task . Operating system for Personal Computers (PC) are single-user OS. For example, if the user is editing a document, then a document cannot be printed on the printer simultaneously. Single user OS are simple operating system designed to manage one task at a time. MS-DOS is an  example of single user OS. Figure :A single user performing a single task Single User and Multitasking OS allows execution of more than one task or process concurrently. For this, the processor time is divided amongst different tasks. This division of time is also called time sharing. The processor switches rapidly between processes. For example, the user can listen to music on the computer while writing an article using a word processor software. The user can switch between the applications and also transfer data between them . Windows 95 and all later versions of Windows are examples of multitasking OS. Figure :A single user performing multitasking (issuing print command and making drawings) Multiuser OS is used in computer networks that allow same data and applications to be accessed by multiple users at the same time . The users can also communicate with each other. Linux, UNIX, and Windows 7 are examples of multiuser OS. Figure : Multiple users working on connected computers Multiprocessing OS have two or more processors for a single running process. Processing takes place in parallel and is also called parallel processing. Each processor works on different parts of the same task, or, on two or more different tasks. Since execution takes place in parallel, they are used for high speed execution, and to increase the power of computer. Linux, UNIX and Windows 7 are examples of multiprocessing OS. Real Time OS are designed to respond to an event within a predetermined time. These operating systems are used to control processes. Processing is done within a time constraint. OS monitors the events that affect the execution of process and respond accordingly. They are used to respond to queries in areas like medical imaging system, industrial control systems etc. LynxOS is an example of real time OS. Embedded OS is embedded in a device in the ROM. They are specific to a device and are less resource intensive. They are used in appliances like microwaves, washing machines, traffic control systems etc. Examples of O.S – UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems Unix was originally written in assembly language.[6] Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly based on BCPL, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by C, and Unix, rewritten in C, developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which have been influential in every modern operating system (see History). The UNIX-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name â€Å"UNIX† is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. â€Å"UNIX-like† is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX. Four operating systems are certified by The Open Group (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP’s HP-UX and IBM’s AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective ve ndor’s hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems’s Solaris Operating System can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple’s OS X, a replacement for Apple’s earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.

Compare and Contrast the Main Principles Psychological Therapies

Good psychological health is characteristic of a person's ability to complete some key functions and activities, including: learning ability, ability of feel, expression and management of all kinds of positive and negative emotions, the ability to form and maintain good human relations and the ability of deal with and change management and uncertainty. (Mental health foundation) Good psychological health not only is the lack of may diagnose mental health problems, although a good mental health may help prevent the development of many of these issues.There are some mental health problems: strong emotional experience, behavior/motivation to change, physical/physical symptoms, unrealistic idea and thought prejudice and distress and damage function, etc. So in order to tackle those mental health problems, psychology clients need some effectively therapeutic approaches to treat. In generally, treating common mental health problems can through two main ways: Medication therapy and Psycholo gical therapies. The ratio is 2:1 preference psychological therapy and medication therapy, when people seeking treatment for common psychological health problems.It can be seen that people are more willing to choose psychological therapies to treat their problems. The psychological therapies including: psychodynamic therapy, behavior therapy, humanistic therapy, cognitive therapy, systemic and family therapies. (Kate Cavanagh(lecture), 2012) In this essay, I will focus on the behavior therapy and cognitive therapy. Following paragraph will analysis the behavior therapy and the paragraph next the behavior therapy will explain cognitive therapy in detail. In the finally paragraph I will compare and contrast the main principles between behavior therapy and cognitive therapy.Behavior therapy The definition of behavior therapy is a nonbiological form of therapy that developed largely out of learning theory research and that is normally applied directly, incrementally, and experimentally in the treatment of specific maladaptive behavior patterns. (Erwin, 1978, p. 44) There are two main principles here, ‘the classical conditioning principles’ and ‘the operant learning principles’. Classical conditioning is the learnt association between stimulus and response. Behaviorists have described many different phenomenons with classical conditioning. The most famous xperiment is a famous physiologist Ivan Petrovich(1894-1936)’s experiment. The experiment is about the salivary reflex in dong. Without any special training in any way, when the researcher put the meat in a healthy dog’s mouth (the stimulus), the dog is starting to produce saliva quickly (the response). Then the assistant put the meat in a healthy dog’s mouth, and the dog still producing saliva, different from last time, at the same time assistant was ringing the bell. Finally, when assistant is ringing bell, the dog will producing saliva. It can be summing up to thre e basic stages of classical conditioning. Geoffrey L L, 1990) Stage 1: food (unconditioned stimulus) can lead to salivation (unconditioned response). And bell (neutral stimulus) can lead to nothing (no effect). Stage 2: food (unconditioned stimulus) linked with bell (neutral stimulus), and food still lead to salivation (unconditioned response). Stage 3: bell (conditioned stimulus) can lead to salivation (conditioned response) directly. (Kendra Cherry (1)) Based on classical conditioning principles, the therapeutic approaches include: systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy, flooding and counter-conditioning / reciprocal inhibition.Joseph Wolpe, behavior therapy pioneer, developed a technology, called systematic desensitization therapy for anxiety related diseases and phobia. Systematic desensitization usually begins to see yourself in a progress and use relaxed fear and anxiety of the competition strategy. Once you can successfully manage your anxiety and imagine terrible event s, you can use this technology in real life this kind of situation. The process's goal is to be gradually to trigger cause you pain. (Sheryl Ankrom, 2009) The procedure shows us the desensitization process in following figure. Source from: ‘The practice of behavior therapy’ (Third Edition), Copyright 1982, Pergamon Books Ltd. ) As the figure shows, when anxiety evolking potential of A is reduced from 1 to 0, B automatically is reduced from 2 to 1, and so forth. Aversion therapy is a form of therapy, the use of behavior principle to eliminate unwanted behavior. In the treatment, unnecessary stimulation is repeated collocation discomfort. Regulating process goal is to make the individual association stimulus and unpleasant or uncomfortable feeling. Kendra Cherry (2)) That means using the pairs problem stimulus (e. g. alcohol) with aversive outcome (e. g. nausea), to deter engagement. In the aversion therapy, the client may be asked to want to or participation behavior the y enjoy and contact some unpleasant things such as bad smell, a bad smell or even mild electric shock. Once the unpleasant feeling become related behavior, hope is unnecessary actions or action will begin to decrease in the frequency or completely stop. Mainly the aversion therapy can be used in bad habits, addictions, alcoholism, smoking, gambling etc.The overall effectiveness of aversion therapy can depend on many factors, including the use of methods, and whether the clients to continue after practice the prevention and treatment of recurrence. In some cases, the client may return to previous behavior patterns once their treatment and no longer exposed to frighten. One of the most important disadvantages is aversion therapy the lack of rigorous scientific evidence to prove its effectiveness. A question of ethics in the treatment of the use of penalty is a bigger worry. Flooding is prolonged exposure to feared stimulus and counter-conditioning / Reciprocal inhibition.Pairs feared stimulus (e. g. giving a talk) with new response (e. g. feeling relaxed and confident). Those two therapeutic approaches are not very popular than systematic desensitisation and aversion therapy, so I just describe them briefly. (Kendra Cherry (2)) Operant conditioning is a kind of study method that occurred in the behavior of the rewards and punishment. An association is made between behavior and result of behavior, through the operant conditioning. The most different from classical conditioning is the behaviors are voluntary. Geoffrey L &Sheryl L, 1990) There are two main concepts in operant conditioning: reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement is any event that raises the behavior follows. Positive reinforcers and negative reinforcers are the main point in positive reinforcers. Positive reforcers are presented after the behavior. The response or behavior is strengthened by the praise or a direct reward, which reflect positive reinforcement. And negative reinforcers involve th e removal or outcomes after the display of behavior. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior rises.On the other hand, punishment is the presentation of outcome or event that caused a decrease in behavior. There are also two kinds of punishment: positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment involves presentation of event or outcome, in order to recede the response. And negative punishment as a punishment by removal is removed after behavior occurs. Both of these case of punishment the behavior decrease. (Kendra Cherry (3)) Operant conditioning key is to use either rewards and punishment mechanism increase or decrease a behavior.Through this process, the association formed between the behavior and the behavior of the consequences. For example, suppose that a coach tried to teach the dog to get a ball. When dog successful chase and picked up the ball, the dog was praised as a reward. When an animal can't search ball, coach reserved praise. Finally, the dog form a connection between his behavior of the grab the ball and receive the reward. Cognitive therapy Cognitive therapy = cognitive behavior therapy (CPT). It is a way of talking about how you think about yourself, how what you do affects your thoughts and feeling and the world and other people. Windy Dryden & William L. Golden, 1978) Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) can help you to change how you think (Cognitive) and what you do (Behaviour). After those changes you will feel better than beforetime . It is different from some of the other treatments, it focuses on more the ‘here and now' problems and difficulties rather than focusing on the causes of your distress or symptoms in the past, it looks for ways to improve your state of mind now. (Nancy Schimelpfening, 2007) A lot of mental health problems like anxiety, stress, bipolar disorder bulimia, panic, disorder, depression etc. an be treated by cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). (Brian Sheldon,1995) Everything have both side, also cognitive behavior therapy have some problems. For example, CBT is not a fast repair. A therapist can give you advises or encourages, however they cannot do it for you. If you are depressed, it difficult to excitation and concentrate. (Alec G, Michael T, Ronam M & Nigel S, 2010) Also to overcome anxiety, you need to face it. This may make you feel more eager for a short period of time. Good doctors will your conversational pace. You decide what you do together, so you should keep control. (RCPSYCH)Compare and contrast the main principles in cognitive therapy to behavior threapy. Behavior therapyCognitive therapy focuses on changing undesirable behaviors. Behavior therapy involves identifying objectionable, maladaptive behaviors and replacing them with healthier types of behavior. focuses on working with the client to identify and evaluate potentially unhelpful thoughts and beliefs. Key point: classical conditioning principles. operant learning principles. Key point: chang e how you think (Cognitive) change what you do (Behaviour) Therapy may longer. Therapy may be quiet brief or longer for more severe or complex difficulties

Free Essays on Facts Of Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson 1. Thomas Jefferson was born at Shadwell, his father’s Virginia plantation, April 13, 1743. (Brown, David xii 12) 2. Thomas Jefferson attends The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1760. (Brown, David xiii 13) 3. Thomas Jefferson started to study law in Williamsburg for five years in 1762. (Watts, Franklin 26-30) 4. Thomas Jefferson began to build his home, Monticello, at the mountaintop with land that he inherited by his father. (Miller 21-22) 5. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1768. (Brown xiii 13) 6. Thomas Jefferson Martha Wayles Skelton in 1772. (Schmittroth, Linda and Rosteck, Kay 250) 7. Thomas Jefferson writes a summary view of The Rights of British America in 1774. (Watts 51) 2 8. Thomas Jefferson was a member of the Committee of Correspondence in Virginia in 1774. (www.HistoryChannel.com) 9. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1775, which was adjourned in 1776. (Miller 1) 10. Thomas Jefferson writes The Declaration of Independence in 1776. (Brown 243) 11. Thomas Jefferson was appointed governor of Virginia in 1779. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 249) 12. Martha Jefferson dies in 1782 along with three of six children. (Watts 86) 13. Dolley Madison served as his first lady in the White House. (www.HistoryChannel.com) 14. Thomas Jefferson accepted an appointment by Congress to serve at the peace commission in Paris, France, to work on a Treaty to end the Revolutionary War. (Miller 86-87) 15. Thomas Jefferson serves as a minister to France from 1785-1789. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 249) 16. Thomas Jefferson becomes the first US secretary of state in 1790. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 251) 17. Thomas Jefferson resigns as secretary of state in 1793. (Brown 245) 3 18. Thomas Jefferson was elected vice president of the United States in 1796. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 252) 19. Thomas Jefferson was the first inaugu... Free Essays on Facts Of Thomas Jefferson Free Essays on Facts Of Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson 1. Thomas Jefferson was born at Shadwell, his father’s Virginia plantation, April 13, 1743. (Brown, David xii 12) 2. Thomas Jefferson attends The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1760. (Brown, David xiii 13) 3. Thomas Jefferson started to study law in Williamsburg for five years in 1762. (Watts, Franklin 26-30) 4. Thomas Jefferson began to build his home, Monticello, at the mountaintop with land that he inherited by his father. (Miller 21-22) 5. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1768. (Brown xiii 13) 6. Thomas Jefferson Martha Wayles Skelton in 1772. (Schmittroth, Linda and Rosteck, Kay 250) 7. Thomas Jefferson writes a summary view of The Rights of British America in 1774. (Watts 51) 2 8. Thomas Jefferson was a member of the Committee of Correspondence in Virginia in 1774. (www.HistoryChannel.com) 9. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1775, which was adjourned in 1776. (Miller 1) 10. Thomas Jefferson writes The Declaration of Independence in 1776. (Brown 243) 11. Thomas Jefferson was appointed governor of Virginia in 1779. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 249) 12. Martha Jefferson dies in 1782 along with three of six children. (Watts 86) 13. Dolley Madison served as his first lady in the White House. (www.HistoryChannel.com) 14. Thomas Jefferson accepted an appointment by Congress to serve at the peace commission in Paris, France, to work on a Treaty to end the Revolutionary War. (Miller 86-87) 15. Thomas Jefferson serves as a minister to France from 1785-1789. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 249) 16. Thomas Jefferson becomes the first US secretary of state in 1790. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 251) 17. Thomas Jefferson resigns as secretary of state in 1793. (Brown 245) 3 18. Thomas Jefferson was elected vice president of the United States in 1796. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 252) 19. Thomas Jefferson was the first inaugu...

Biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald

Biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald F. Scott Fitzgerald, born Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald (September 24, 1896 – December 21, 1940) was an American author whose works became synonymous with the Jazz Age. He moved in the major artistic circles of his day but failed to garner widespread critical acclaim until after his death at the age of 44. Fast Facts: F. Scott Fitzgerald Full Name: Francis Scott Key FitzgeraldKnown For:  American authorBorn:  September 24, 1896 in St. Paul, MinnesotaDied:  December 21, 1940 in Hollywood, CaliforniaSpouse:  Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald (m. 1920-1940)Children:  Frances Scottie Fitzgerald (b. 1921)Education: Princeton UniversityNotable Works: This Side of Paradise, The Great Gatsby, Tender Is the Night, The Curious Case of Benjamin Button Early Life F. Scott Fitzgerald was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, to a well-off upper-middle-class family. His parents were Edward Fitzgerald, a former Marylander who moved north after the Civil War, and Molly Fitzgerald, the daughter of an Irish immigrant who made a fortune in the grocery industry. Fitzgerald was named after his distant cousin, Francis Scott Key, who famously wrote â€Å"The Star-Spangled Banner.† Only a few months before his birth, two of his sisters died suddenly. The family did not spend his early life in Minnesota, however. Edward Fitzgerald worked mostly for Proctor and Gamble, so the Fitzgeralds spent most of their time living in upstate New York and in West Virginia, following Edward’s job demands. Nevertheless, the family lived quite comfortably, thanks to a wealthy aunt and Molly’s inheritance from her own rich family. Fitzgerald was sent to Catholic schools and proved to be a bright student with a particular interest in literature. In 1908, Edward Fitzgerald lost his job and the family returned to Minnesota. When F. Scott Fitzgerald was 15 he was sent away from home to attend a prestigious Catholic prep school, the Newman School, in New Jersey. College, Romances, and Military Life After graduating from Newman in 1913, Fitzgerald decided to stay in New Jersey to continue working on his writing, rather than returning to Minnesota. He attended Princeton and became heavily involved with the literary scene on campus, writing for several publications and even joining a theatre troupe, the Princeton Triangle Club. During a visit back to St. Paul in 1915, Fitzgerald met Ginevra King, a debutante from Chicago, and they began a two-year romance. They conducted their romance mostly through letters, and she was reportedly the inspiration for some of his most iconic characters, including The Great Gatsby’s Daisy Buchanan. In 1917, their relationship ended, but Fitzgerald kept the letters she’d written to him; after his death, his daughter sent them to King, who kept them and never showed them to anyone. F. Scott Fitzgerald in his military uniform in 1918; he never saw action in the war.   Time Life Pictures / Getty Images Fitzgerald’s writing-related activities took up the bulk of his time, which meant he neglected his actual studies to the point of being on academic probation. In 1917, he officially dropped out of Princeton and joined the Army instead, as the U.S. was just joining World War I. He was stationed under the command of Dwight D. Eisenhower, whom he despised, and feared that he would die in the war without ever having become a published author. The war ended in 1918, before Fitzgerald was ever actually deployed overseas. New York and Europe in the Jazz Age While stationed in Alabama, Fitzgerald met Zelda Sayre, the daughter of a state Supreme Court justice and a Montgomery socialite. They fell in love and became engaged, but she broke it off, worried that he would be unable to support them financially. Fitzgerald revised his first novel, which became This Side of Paradise; it sold in 1919 and was published in 1920, becoming a quick success. As a direct result, he and Zelda were able to resume their engagement and were married that same year in New York City at St. Patrick’s Cathedral. Their only daughter, Frances Scott Fitzgerald (known as â€Å"Scottie†) was born in October 1921. The Fitzgeralds became staples of New York society, as well as the American expatriate community in Paris. Fitzgerald formed a close friendship with Ernest Hemingway, but they came into conflict over the subject of Zelda, who Hemingway openly hated and believed was holding Fitzgerald’s career back. During this time, Fitzgerald supplemented his income by writing short stories, since only his first novel was a financial success during his lifetime. He wrote The Great Gatsby in 1925, but although it’s regarded as his masterpiece now, it was not a success until after his death. Much of his writing was tied to the â€Å"Lost Generation,† a phrase coined to describe the disillusionment in post-WWI years and often associated with the group of expatriate artists with which Fitzgerald mingled. Zelda and F. Scott Fitzgerald, circa 1921. Time Life Pictures / Getty Images   In 1926, Fitzgerald had his first movie offer: to write a flapper comedy for the United Artists studio. The Fitzgeralds moved to Hollywood, but after Fitzgerald’s affair with actress Lois Moran, their marital difficulties necessitated a move back to New York. There, Fitzgerald began working on a fourth novel, but his heavy drinking, financial difficulties, and Zelda’s declining physical and mental health got in the way. By 1930, Zelda was suffering from schizophrenia, and Fitzgerald had her hospitalized in 1932. When she published her own semi-autobiographical novel, Save Me the Waltz, in 1932, Fitzgerald was furious, insisting that their lives together were â€Å"material† that only he could write about; he even managed to get edits made to her manuscript before publication. Later Years and Death In 1937, after Zelda’s final hospitalization, Fitzgerald found himself financially unable to decline an offer from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to move to Hollywood and write exclusively for their studio. During that time, he had a high-profile live-in affair with gossip columnist Sheilah Graham, and he wrote a series of short stories mocking himself as a Hollywood hack. His hard living began to catch up with him, as he had been an alcoholic for decades. Fitzgerald claimed to suffer from tuberculosis–which he very well may have–and he suffered at least one heart attack by the end of the 1930s. On December 21, 1940, Fitzgerald suffered another heart attack at his home with Graham. He died almost instantly, aged 44. His body was taken back to Maryland for a private funeral. Since he was no longer a practicing Catholic, the Church refused to allow him a burial in the Catholic cemetery; he was instead interred at Rockville Union Cemetery. Zelda died eight years later, in a fire at the asylum where she was living, and she was buried next to him. They remained there until 1975, when their daughter Scottie successfully petitioned to have their remains moved to the family plot at the Catholic cemetery. Legacy Fitzgerald left behind an unfinished novel, The Last Tycoon, as well as a prolific output of short stories and four completed novels. In the years after his death, his work became more praised and more popular than it ever was during his life, especially The Great Gatsby. Today, he’s regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the 20th century. Sources Bruccoli, Matthew Joseph. Some Sort of Epic Grandeur: The Life of F. Scott Fitzgerald. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2002.Curnutt, Kirk, ed. A Historical Guide to F. Scott Fitzgerald. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Building Therapeutics Relationships in Forensic Psychology

Building Therapeutics Relationships in Forensic Psychology What interpersonal qualities should a forensic psychologist have that help build therapeutic relationships? Forensic psychology is a branch of criminological psychology; it refers to the knowledge of the understanding, prediction and nature of crime or criminal behaviour (Bull, Davies Colman, 1995). In recent years, some state institutions have tried to prohibit females from working within all male prisons in America, as they argue that it is too dangerous for females (Arrigo & Shipley, 2005), meaning that although there have been major developments for equality of sexes, there is still some prejudice of females being the weaker gender, both physically and psychologically, within this line of work. This shows us that forensic psychology is a fairly recent phenomenon, with establishments, such as the British Psychological Association (BPS) recently creating a division devoted to criminal psychology (Buskist, Carlson & Martin, 2000). This may mean, that although we have some understa nding of the professionalism needed within legal and psychological situations, we may not be fully aware of specific requirements needed of individuals due to the fact that forensic psychology is still in its adolescent stages of development. Some questions posed to forensic psychologists help us gain an insight into what qualities are needed to give an accurate report and to fully express themselves within legal situations. These include, and are not limited to: if they are fit to stand trial, if the testimony is genuine, if the individual has any learning difficulties and if they are malingering (Colman, 1995). This would mean that not only are forensic psychologists required to have a respectful understanding of all parties involved, it is also key that they show qualities of insight, to understand the strengths and limitations of the individual and the tests conducted. Other qualities include an empathetic personality to any personality or learning disorders, tolerance of indivi duals with uncooperative personalities and an unprejudiced outwardly view of an individual, regardless of their past.

Use sociological theory to discuss and analyse the future effects of Essay

Use sociological theory to discuss and analyse the future effects of globalisation on developed and developing societies.(essay1500-2000 words) - Essay Example ise economic system dominated by supranational corporate trade and banking institutions that are not accountable to democratic processes or national governments.† (Rosenberg 2000) defines â€Å"The term ‘globalisation’ after all, is at first sight merely a descriptive category, denoting either the geographical extension of social processes or possibly, as in Giddens’ definition, ‘the intensification of worldwide social relations’.† According to the (World Bank Brief 2000) globalisation gained pace in the 1980s and 1990s, with the advancements in information technology, transportation and global communications. These include improved telecommunications, the Internet and faster world travel, to name a few. These technological improvements enabled people to transport goods, services and knowledge, faster, farther and more reliably. Governments have also adopted more open policies that allow for closer international economic cooperation. Supporters of globalisation claim that its goal is to reduce poverty worldwide. Supporters point out that despite the world population increasing from 1.8 billion to 6.0 billion, with the presence of political and armed conflicts, the real average income of each individual today is five times more than it was at the beginning of the century. However, globalisation also revealed vulnerabilities, which raise concern among both developed, and developing countries. If there is global reduction of poverty, it has also produced problems for its players. (Giddens 2001) states that, â€Å"Globalisation is not an ‘out there’ phenomenon, as if some external forces are at work. September 11 showed that it’s an ‘in here’ phenomenon†. He emphasized that globalisation is not a product of external factors, but also occurs within nations. â€Å"With interdependence comes vulnerability, a shift in our institutions, our emotions, our anxiety†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , he stressed (Giddens 2001). (Giddens 2001) stated that tradition in early modernity

Rhetorical Analysis of JFK'S Inaugural Address Essay

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Being the Bridge Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 2011 Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 2011 - Term Paper Example Natural disasters account as a perfect example signifying the limitations of the human knowledge and control over the world. Scientists and researchers have tried to devise techniques to find out a solution to these occurrences but they have not achieved success in this field. A tragic natural disaster hit the country of Japan on the 11 march 2011. This tragic occurrence was analyzed to be the worst earthquake that had occurred in the history of the country and was highlighted to have set up alarms up till the United States and the South America. The earthquake was accompanied with a tsunami and resulted in a nuclear disaster in the country which was termed to have a higher severity than the Chernobyl nuclear event. These disasters not only hampered the infrastructure of the country but led to the displacement and deaths of thousands of people and resulted in great economic losses for the country (Japan — Earthquake, Tsunami and Nuclear Crisis 2011). The earthquake in Japan ha s been ranked as the fifth most powerful earthquake of the world since the twentieth century. The earthquake was of the magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter scale. The earthquake had the highest severity in the northeastern part of Japan. Twenty four thousand people lost their lives or were missing following the earthquake. The tsunami, that resulted due to the earthquake, led to the destruction and drowning of complete villages in the northeastern part of the country. It was estimated that more than 3,400 buildings in the country had undergone destruction and damage. The power supply across the major cities was disrupted and people had to survive with no electricity and gas. Fires erupted across the areas that were hit mainly in the industrial locations as well as in places where there were oil reservoirs meant for storing the oil. The severity and strength of the earthquake did not settle and 100 minor earthquakes followed within a short period. The communication network across the are as that were hit was also disrupted. Immediately following the earthquake, it was understood by the nuclear experts that the tsunami that had resulted due to the earthquake had posed risk of damage to the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station. The chaos that had resulted has not led to provide for a complete analysis of the situation. But owing to the risk, hundred thousands of people were moved from the areas that were close to the nuclear power plants to avoid the adverse effects that could have resulted due to the radiations from the power plants. The combined national organizations and the forces of the country set to work to save the people and move them to safer locations. These included the people from the fire department, police department as well as the armed forces of the country (Dawson et al 2011; Japan — Earthquake, Tsunami and Nuclear Crisis 2011). The earthquake and the tsunami caused enough destruction and negative effects in Japan but the devastation in the country was aggravated by a nuclear breakdown and leakage that occurred in the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station. The nuclear power station had been affected by the tsunami as well as the earthquake. The day following the earthquake hit the country, there was a first blast reported from the nuclear power plant. This was accompanied by a second blast after three days. The

Foundation of Western Civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Foundation of Western Civilization - Essay Example The earlier Greeks could come up with a question about the nature of the world and look for an answer that was entirely independent on the supernatural powers this set the pace for the then intellectual revolution. They question the origin of the world and by so doing ignited what is now science and also ignited philosophy. The great leadership with morals in the west had foundation in the people of antique, in those early days the Hebrews introduced some ideas, their god was very powerful and could destroy whenever he wants however he was open to persuasion and subject to good morals he will however destroy those who stray from the moral standard within the society. This was borrowed to today with leaders always having to pass the moral test if they have to be elected. The Jewish religion had also impact on the west. Their God was neither superhuman nor like human beings but of high stature in comparison to human beings. They brought in righteousness into western culture, they believed that god is a righteous god and he is just and fair to forgive, if one repents the sins he will be forgiven. The prophets tell people to be righteous so that they can be saved from the punishment from God. This Jews religion and tradition brought morality to the west that is still the mode up to today. These believe in Gods power and righteousness is still part of the western culture and heritage. In Jews religion we are the children of God and this brought a different view of mankind as being children of God. The Greeks started thinking and not attributing everything to gods, they start curing diseases and reasoned that they were caused by natural causes and not curses or being from gods. From that foundation research and development in medical fields kicked off. The Greeks became to say that laws are made by humans and not from gods they start to make laws that helped control human beings and keep them within the

Significance of John Brown and Harpers Ferry Essay Example for Free

Significance of John Brown and Harpers Ferry Essay Since the Battle of Fort Sumpter, three months later, the first major battle during the civil war began on July 21, 1861 which was called The First Battle of Bull Run in Manassas. During this major battle, General Irvin McDowell commanded the large Union army while General Pierre G.T. Beauregard commanded the Confederate army. The Union perceived that they would make a quick and swift victory with very little loss, but it was the opposite. At the time both sides had inexperienced soldiers. When this war was happening the hundred of Manassas citizens left their homes to watch the battle unfold. Cannons and muskets would be fired all over and some misfires would end up at the civilians homes. At the start the Union was able a push the Confederates back to Henry Hill, but they would have their comeback. Beauregard make a strong defensive line controlled by General Thomas J. Jackson. Jackson held his ground successfully and gained the name Stonewall Jackson. The Confederates were able to capture Union artillery and chose to counterattack the Union soldiers. But it quickly lashed back at them when Union forces on the hill came down and broke the Confederates line of defense, forcing his complete retreat of the Bull Run. Thus this was a victory for the Union. The result of the battle left bodys riddled in the battlefield. Thousands of wasted soldiers died in that battle and was the largest and bloodiest battle during the Civil War. Other than scaring the scaring the citizens who were watching the entire battle the government was also shocked at the outcomes of this battle. Both sides came to the belief that this Civil War was going to become longer and more deadly as it goes on. From looking back at the battle one can see that it was not going to end quickly or any time soon. It became clear that it would last longer than people thought and that there was going to be more struggle. It also brought to people a clear image of what war was like. Thought the Union gained heavy losses, soldiers all across the Union gained moral for this victory and that they won. This war has also brought to the Generals attention that most of their soldiers are inexperienced and need to be trained and prepared for future battles. Politicians in the North were outraged by the high losses resulting from the battle, which gained in favor for the south and gave them hope that the Confederate army could defeat the Union.

Intellectual Property Rights And The Fashion Industry Cultural Studies Essay

Intellectual Property Rights And The Fashion Industry Cultural Studies Essay With a gross annual turnover of $750 billion per year the fashion industry is at the forefront of the worlds economy. Unlike most other goods, people demand fashion not for the added value or feature that a new item brings but for its own sake. People (mostly females) of all ages pour over magazines showing the latest celebrity fashions and then go out to retail fashion shows or browse online in search of something similar. This demand for the latest style of the rich and famous has transpired into a business network with an influence across the globe. This global business has brought with it many legal issues. Particularly important is the copying of the celebrity fashion that the masses seem to want. This essay will be broken into three parts. The first part will examine the current state of the law both in Australia and other jurisdictions. The second part will ask how the law can be changed in Australia to give greater protection to the fashion industry and the third part will lo ok at whether or not this change is necessary for the industry to grow. I will argue that the law needs to be reformed in such a way that copying is prohibited but flocking (following celebrity styles) isnt. IP law the reasons for its existence. The standard argument for the existence of intellectual property rights is that without them copyists will free ride on the creative efforts of others. Since most creative efforts are sold for economic gain absent any intellectual property rights the creators will see no incentive in creating when others can copy their designs and profit from it. The market for books, movies and music is protected from industrial copying in Australia by the Copyright Act. This act prevents the mass scale production of these creative works without licence or prior approval (with certain exceptions). This protection, gives the industry the comfort of knowing that its protected from the free-riding act of copyists. Albeit a creative work, the fashion industry remains vastly unprotected in many parts of the world. In Australia the Designs act of 2003 (which replaced the designs act of 1906) is the primary form of protection of designs for the industry. It is helpful to note at this point that the sketche s of designs are protected by the Copyright Act. Similarly, a new invention in clothing for example a new material that can keep one warm in winter and cold in summer would be protected by the Patents Act. This essay however is not concerned with those acts and their advantages or limitations. This essay is concerned with the protection of designs designs, researched and manufactured by the big designer houses and then copied by the high street for the masses. In a bid to regulate themselves from copying because of the absence of any laws to protect them the Fashion Originators Guild of America started self regulating the industry as early as the 1930s. Their method of regulation was to have designs registered with the Guild and any other firm copying these designs d be boycotted by members of the guild. The guilds activities were ruled as a violation of U.S. antitrust laws by virtue of a decision of the U.S. Supreme court in 1941. What concern us though are not the contents of that case, but rather whether the Guilds efforts in protecting intellectual property caused an increase in innovation and more frequent designs. Randal Picker suggests that the guilds efforts go to show that there was a need by the high end designers for this type of protection. He goes on to argue that the very theory of fashion means that the high end designers would only thrive in a market which was heavily regulated. This is because they market goods to a niche of customers who want to have what no one else has. These designers offer their customers unique one of a kind products and their customers purchase these because of the snob appeal these customers want only what others dont have. If there is no protection for their designs these designs would be copied by the high street stores and then the snob appeal of these goods will be lost. This means that these customers will not be willing to pay such high prices for these goods as they do not see a differential value in them. Although this copying has been around for almost a century and a half the problem is worsening due to improvements in information technology. The internet provides simultaneous access to fashions worldwide especially the European fashion weeks where big designers usually display their stuff and these are copied almost immediately. The poor quality of these copies means that some of these producers can get the products out to the market faster than the original desig ners. This means that once the designers products hit the market they have already lost their unique appeal. Further, since this fast fashion run-offs have become more highly sophisticated; the copyists can wait to even see which of the products seem to sell the most before they decide what to produce and they can then produce these trend setting items without having to take on the risk that their investment might not pay off. The basic theory of intellectual property would find this appalling. The big design houses spend millions of dollars on salaries for designers, researching market trends and organising expensive processes and fashion shows. Copyists however free ride on this work and produce cheaper substitutes. According to the traditional theory of IP this should lead to an economic disincentive on the part of the big fashion houses causing them to research and produce less. However the converse is true. We see that the bigger fashion houses continue to produce new creations every single year and the glamour of their products only increase. In order to understand why the standard disincentive is not in place we will need to look at the theory of fashion. The Theory of fashion Fashion theory dates back several hundred years. The Haute Couture stores of France were the powerhouses of fashion. No sooner was an item launched was it copied in America and sold to a larger market for much cheaper. It is important to make the distinction between close copying on the one hand (making replicas) and participating in trends on the other. Fashion changes often with some styles emerging as trends only to be soon replaced by other styles rising quickly to take its place. The demand for fashion is not merely a physical need although some people will wish to buy a new coast when their old one tears or a new cardigan because their old one looks worn. Fashion is more accurately a cultural expression. According to the fashion theory the theory of the leisure class fashion is usually adopted by elites with the purpose of being different from the masses. The masses then admire and demands goods that will emulate the elites. Consequently the elites abandon the older fashion, which has now been copied by the masses in favour of newer items that will distinguish them from the masses. This first theory of fashion suggests that fashion is driven by a an aspiration of social mobility on one hand (the masses trying to emulate the elite) and social stratification on the other (the elite trying to distinguish themselves from the masses) The other major theory is that of collective selection whereby fashion evolves through the collective process where many people, through their individual choices come to form the collective trend in society. The process of trend formation begins vaguely with a few people buying something of a unique design in the emulation of a celebrity and others copying it until a trend is formed. This theory is not purely about copying the elite, rather it is people following fashion because they desire to be in fashion and associate themselves with the latest styles and trends. This theory also called the Zeitgeist theory works through a matter of individual choice and collective social tastes. Whatever the theory prevalent in society one thing is certain and that is that the masses cannot afford the styles of the elite. Very few people in our society can afford t shirts from Armani and jackets from Polo Ralph Lauren. These large fashion house brands retail items at several hundred dollars apiece making it unaffordable to the masses. Fast fashion copying is the solution. The fast fashion outlets like Zara and Forever 21 provide these trend setting items at a fraction of the cost of the designer houses. One must not be mistaken here that they make exact copies of these items, because they dont. Rather their in house designers make inspirational pieces following the same trend but different. The items are visually similar to the ones of the high fashion houses and this is what many times has come before the courts under the Designs Act 2003 (Australia). Many of these fast fashion firms have shops on large high streets and have built themselves into a business empire. State of the law in Australia In Australia until the 17th June 2004 designs were protected by the Designs Act of 1906. According to the older legislation in order to register the design the design had to be: Features of shape, configuration, pattern or ornamentation applicable to an article, being features that, in the finished article, can be judged by the eye, but does not include a method or principle of construction This legislation did not strike a balance between what are considered ideal objectives of design legislation; to protect designs form free riding competitors but yet at the same time not stifle competition too much because innovation is usually a development on a previous design. The older legislation was also impractical for the fashion industry because of the nature of the law itself. According to the old law the applicant had to file a separate design registration for each variation to the similar product. This is impractical as many items of fashion come in different colours and sizes. Further the design application needed to be examined by the designs office before registration was granted. This meant that designs had to be submitted before they could be registered. This too was impractical to the fashion industry for a number of reasons. Firstly, by the time the process of submitting the design and registration was complete the item would already have gone out of fashion given the relatively fast lifecycle of fast fashion. Further submitting the designs would mean the designs would have to be completed earlier. Usually designers work on their designs until the last minute before the official launch working on extras until hours before the design goes public. The old designs regulation was clearly impractical for fashion and the replacement legislation in the form of the Designs Act of 2003 hoped to iron out some of the problems. Under this act the fashion industry benefitted heavily as protection was obtainable for more than one design (colour or size) of the same product. . However the official government fees for this is a drawback to the registration of more than one design of the same product. Under the new act the fees for the first design is $200 and for every variation of that design a further $200. This heavy cost especially for the mid budget fashion houses is disadvantageous. Further the new legislation permits the design to be registered even before a full examination of the product is undertaken. This gives time for the producers to tweak the designs even until the last minute before they are released. However, the examination whilst not compulsory needs to take place before the owner can take action against anyone who infringes on this design. Getting this inspection carried out is costly, costing $360 per variation of a design, and requires a lot of paper work; in the form of photographs and a Statement of Newness and Distinctiveness explaining how this design is new and distinctive from any others on the market (without which the registrar might not be satisfied that the product is new and distinctive). The courts have taken an interesting approach to the question of designs in the fashion industry. The first decision to be handed down after the enactment of the Designs Act 2003 was the Federal Court of Australias decision in Review v Innovative Lifestyle Investments Pty Ltd and concerned a dress produced by Review and registered of which Innovative Lifestyle Investments produced an identical design. Justice Jessup found that the striking visual similarity between the designs and the time period in which they were produced (the ILI dress coming out only a few months after Reviews) was an indication that the registered design was breached. However, calculating damages was difficult because Review did not wish to submit its sales figures to the court. Thus Justice Jessup awarded Review $7500 in damages due to minor loss of reputation as not being a brand of originality and another $10,000 for ILI continuing the sale of the dresses after finding out about Reviews registration. ILI plan s on appealing the decision so it will be interesting to see what decision the appellate court hands down. This case shows that whilst there is sufficient legal protection in Australia for the protection of designs there are several limits to the protection. One such limitation is time. It took about seven months for the Review design to be registered. Items which are not timeless items like Reviews dress would have the long passed their fashion expiry before the registration of these items were completed. Since action cannot be taken until registration is completed this would mean that many designers would potentially not be willing to take action as the product would no longer be an item in stock. Further the need by the judges to assess the loss in sales would require firms to furnish in court their sales and projected sales figures. This might be highly sensitive information that they would not want competitors, in the highly competitive market, to know. Finally the value of dam ages awarded in this case was not high against ILI. If this case is anything to go by the exemplary damages are arguably not sufficient to deter copying. Rather many copyists would see this as merely the cost of doing business. Copying of items in the fashion industry can also be protected by copyright law. The copyright law provisions are used when there is an artistic or craftsmanship appeal to the garment. Protection under this provision was brought before the courts in 2008 by Elwood a manufacturer of trendy youth clothes. Elwood alleged that Cotton On had violated its copyright for two computer generated drawings; the New Deal tshirt and the swing tags attached to these garments. They alleged that Cotton On had sold several hundred tshirts which were visually similar to the New Deal tshirts. Cotton On conceded that the only difference was the wording but otherwise they had copied the design drawings. The first question the court had to answer was whether the designs drawings were drawings and thus entitled to protection under the act (as artistic works). The key to answering this question was whether the wording was to be read as text or whether they were for pictorial purposes. The court found that th ey were a pictorial which was designed to bring recognition to the Elwood brand. Accordingly the design drawings were the subject of the Copyrights Act. After determining that the designs were copyright works, the judge had to determine whether they were original Elwood drawings. The judge found on the evidence that this was an original drawing as Elwood had spent several weeks and a lot of effort creating them and thus they satisfied the originality criteria. That being assessed the judge had to then work out whether what Cotton on had copied amounted to a substantial part. In his honours opinion Cotton On had copied only the shape and the form of the item and not the wording or symbols of the design and thus did not create a visual similarity with Elwoods design. His honour said that the degree of copying was in keeping with Cotton Ons theme, same but different. We see here that even through copyright law it is hard for the copyright holders to have protection for their designs. The problem of free riding occurs when larger companies like Elwood carry out research and spend both time and money creating the brand and fashion statement. The copyists then free ride on this and tweak the designs slightly so that they can get around the law and as such they benefit from the hard work and risk taking of other firms. The Design/Copyright Overlap Whereas copyright law must encompass an element of artistic craftsmanship (such as the digital designs of both the tshirt and the tag in the Elwood case) or used to protect one off designs such as individual garments or pieces of jewellery; garments which are commercially marketed need to be protected by the Designs Act. For many years governments have been trying hard to emphasise this distinction. Their rationale suggests that when it comes to the shape and appearance of designs the Designs Act is more appropriate and people wanting their items to be mass produced for commercial sales should register their designs. To give effect to this policy the government has included provisions in the copyright act to close the loopholes that existed in previous legislation. Some of the provisions intend that purely two dimensional designs will have dual protection under the copyright and designs act. The other main change is that people creating works of artistic craftsmanship can choose whet her or not to register the design (but registering will generally result in a loss of copyright). It follows that the design copyright overlap has been made clearer as a result of the amended designs act and changes to the Copyrights Act. This has been the governments attempt to make the laws clearer and friendlier to give designers a more protected environment in which to carry out their work. It can be seen however, that the cost of registering the designs as well as the cost of enforcement of the registered design (litigation and related costs) are high in comparison to the damages receivable especially if the original designer is hesitant to make too many figures known to the court. Further, especially for claims under the Copyrights Act, the burden of proof is very high. The courts have been very careful to interpret the word substantial and as was seen in the Elwood case, although the copyright was found in favour of Elwood the court held the outcome in favour of Cotton On because they said that the visual appearance was not substantially similar to the Elwood design. This decision begs the question as to whether items can be copied so long as the colour and wording has changed. Whilst this might be perfectly acceptable in other industries, judges fail to understand the uniqueness of fashion, where it is not the item itself that matters but the advertising, marketing and style promotion than creates the trend for the item. It is arguable then that when considering designs and copyright protection the court should look deeply into merely just the design or drawing and focus on the value of the design or drawing in creating the trend fashion. That said, it is difficult to assess where exactly the trend originated. Some argue that the trend originates with the celebrities in Hollywood and others argue that the trends originate from the catwalks of Europe. These claims are however disputable as there are new and emerging fashion design centres around the world especially in Australia where the seasons are opposite to those of the countries in the Northern hemisphere making it impractical to follow their trends. Thus the onus of proving who started a trend might eventually mean that there is no protection for any designer since all fast fashion designs are usually a variation of some trend or item. Reforms: The US lacks fashion copyright protection completely and this has given rise to an entire industry that copies and tweaks. Fashion industry specialists call this blatant piracy looking great for cheap. One fashion expert reports that a high street fashion brand like Forecer 21 copies and retails a $2000 dress for $80 and even shoes by the renowned designer Balenciaga worth over $600 dollars is copied and sold by Steve Madden for $60. The lack of adequate safeguards in the US as opposed to Australia is the cause of this. Experts say that the up and coming designers are those at the biggest risk because they can ill afford the legislation needed to fight back. The Australian law can perhaps take some ideas for reform from the amendments suggested by the US Copyrights office. The first as a part of several suggestions is that the protection time frame be reduced from 10 years to 3 years. This is because the haute couture fashion where items retail for several hundred dollars a piece will usually have lost their exclusivity or reached the end of their fashion peak well within the three years. Although designs change fast a reason for the longer period of three years is to also include classic fashion items like the Guy suit by Hugo Boss. Another reform that has been suggested that we might adopt in Australia is that registration must be completed and take place within three months from the date that it goes public. This means that once a design is registered the designer has upto three months to organise for the inspection to be carried out for the item. This gives the designer more flexibility to decide which designs are profitable and then decide which ones he wants to register thus saving on the costs of statutory fees and paperwork. Finally they suggest that there be a special fashion board set up to deal with the fashion industry where a group of experts independently asses the item such that they can better understand the subtleties of a new design as opposed to an old one and thus the granting of registration will be fairer. Along with this Ralph Brown suggests that in order to make the enforcing more affordable this board be also given the power to handle conflicts. He argues that this be the first instance board that reviews the complaints that designers have if they feel that their designs have been breached. This board should be entrusted with the power to make a non binding directive (after analysing the evidence) in favour of or against the claimant. He argues that because this board will be made up of fashion experts they will be in a better position to analyse the breaches. If Australia had a system like this, then the Elwood decision might not have been decided the way it was. This board would have b een able to realise the subtleties of the trend style which His Honour in that case failed to see. In other words they will interpret the law in the context of the industry and not on the black letter analysis of the law. He concedes that the court is the ultimate arbitrator and he argues that if one or both parties are not willing to settle based on the boards directive then they could appeal the decision to court. The rationale for this approach is that to save costs and reputation most firms will settle out of court. What is important in any reform is having a balance between protecting the designs of those whose spend time, skill and money developing the latest fashions against the interests of the masses who want to be in fashion and who are willing to buy the cheaper counterfeits. The recommendations mentioned above would definitely allow designers to make the most of protecting their designs and their investments. In keeping with the standard theory of intellectual property i t is likely to increase investment in the industry. The large fashion houses might be willing to come up with more designs, and varieties of designs because they feel that there is an inexpensive way of enforcing their intellectual property rights. At the same time younger designers will be willing to release more designs into the market because they feel that they are better protected and can enforce their intellectual property system in a way that is understandable and cost effective to them. On the other hand the method proposed above would benefit the high street fast fashion firms as a trained eye in the board is likely to be able to spot the difference between blatant copying and trends. Zara for example will be able to produce in the confidence that when they produce dresses a trained eye in the design board will be able to easily tell that theirs is not an imitation of an original dress but rather a variation in style but within the scope of trends. This is something that the judges find hard to understand because as Susan Scaffidi (one of the most prolific fashion law writers) put it it is hard to have a sixty seventy year old white man look at an item of chic ladies fashion and decide whether or not copyright has been breached. Another proposed reform is that the costs of applying for design can be reduced by the government. The UWA faculty of law expert has written that making the registration process cheaper might be possible by maintaining an online database of all the designs. He argues that if design registration is cheaper more designers are going to seek it and this will be better for the intellectual property regime. The bigger fashion houses also argue that their selling point is that their styles are unique and those who purchase from them pay so much because of the snob appeal of the item. They argue that with so much copying their unique designs become less unique and as such they have to keep designing more items to keep up the unique appeal. Alain Wertheimer , Chairman of Chanel when asked about this in an interview to the Newsweek said that because of the vast amount of copying going on in the industry people are willing to pay less and less for designer clothes as they see no snob appeal in them. She says that as a result the bigger fashion houses are finding it hard to survive and that her brand too has had to undergo diversification to survive. Donatella Versace arguing on the same point says that Versace has had to diversify into manufacturing lifestyle items and dinner sets too because of insufficient protection by the government. Raustiala and Sprigman, in their article the Piracy Paradox argue very strongly that a strong intellectual property regime will not change anything. They argue that people keep demanding the latest trends and as long as the demand is there the suppliers will continue to provide for it. They also argue that the market will not change by much because the masses will not be able to afford the original designs anyway. They rationalise this theory to a fixed amount that people are willing to pay for items even if they were Zeitegists. This is because after a point fashion becomes a luxury good and the demand is therefore inelastic. People, they argue, after a point are not willing to sacrifice necessities for luxury goods and will do one of two things, either do without it or be content with older collections. They further argue in direct rebuttal to the claims of Alain Wertheimer and Donatella Versace that as a result of the big fashion house designs being copied and reproduced people who demand the unique style that comes with these designer products will keep purchasing more and it is good for their business. Their rebuttal to this is found in their theory of induced obsolescence. They argue that because clothing is about perception the demand for the goods is because the highly fashionable people have them and to not have them means that one is unfashionable. They also argue that in line with the theory of the leisure class that once more people have it those who demand unique products will want something else for the snob appeal. They argue that this causes the cycle all over again. Thus we can see that as more items are copied this puts pressure on the fashion houses to produce newer and more distinctive items. As such they can produce more often and their profits increase. Logically , it then flows that copying whilst being a part of the business of the copyist firms is also beneficial to the large fashion houses because the elite will keep demanding newer styles and this increases their business. This is called induced obsolescence by copying. They further argue that by the masses flocking to buy the latest styles there is an automatic trend created and as such the large fashion houses benefit because those on the marginal income lines will tend to purchase the fashion house brands so that they can be a part of the trend. It is also arguable that because the trends are so short lived for most of the casual wear collections (an average style time for the Armani Tees is seven months) even if there are tougher intellectual property law few firms would go through the trouble of registering all but their most classic designs. Conclusion In this essay we have looked at the reasons for the existence of intellectual property generally. We have then identified the theories of fashion and seen how people demand in style products so the copyists employ designers not to make an exact replica of the item but to make an item similar such that the item is a part of the trend. We have then considered the law in Australia. We have looked at how the Designs Act and the Copyright Act play an important role in protecting the designs and drawings of the designers. We have identified that the courts have had a mixed approach to enforcing right under the act. We saw in the Review decision the impracticality of taking an action to Court under the Designs Act. We saw that this impracticality was because the claimant needs to submit highly sensitive figures for the courts to make a decision. Further, we saw that the Elwood decision in which it is probable that the judge misunderstood that what Elwood was doing was setting a trend for pr inted tees. We then argued that it is impossible for courts to find the difference between trends and styles and argued that perhaps we do not want them to rule against style. This paper also suggested possible reforms to the law and to the method in which the law should be administered. These reforms flow from our previous analysis of the method of administration of the law being impractical. It was proposed that the proposed methods would help the administration of the system as well as make a more streamlined an easier system for designers to enforce their rights. However, when we consider the theories of fashion as a whole and when we consider the article by Raustiala and Sprigman, we see that reform really isnt necessary. Reform will not dynamically change the face of the industry because most designers will not go through the trouble of registering their designs as the design life cycles are very short and the trouble taken to register designs is not worth their while. We also see that reform is not necessary because copying (otherwise referred to as trend setting) is helpful to the big fashion houses. It stimulates designs for their products and increases their sales. We started off by saying that the industry is worth $750 billion a year. There seems to be enough money to go around. Any changes which impose tighter control will only reduce the value of the industry and push many out of business.